layers of earth//crust(outer layer)//mantle(beneath the crust)//outer core//Inner core// states//thickness//composition//function//pressure//temperature//function

LAYERS OF EARTH

The Earth is made up of four main layers, each with distinct properties, composition, and physical states.

🌍 1. Crust (Outermost Layer)

The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth. It is made of solid rock and forms the land (continents) and ocean floors.

• State: Solid

• Thickness:

  • Oceanic crust: ~5–10 km

  • Continental crust: ~30–70 km

•  Oceanic crust (thinner, denser, under oceans)

• Continental crust (thicker, less dense, forms land)

• Composition: Mostly silicate rocks (basalt in oceanic, granite in continental)

• Interesting Fact: Makes up less than 1% of Earth's total volume 

• Outermost layer

• Solid rock (includes continents and ocean floors)

• Thinnest layer (5–70 km thick)

• Made mostly of silicon, oxygen, aluminum, and other minerals

• Supports all life and Earth's surface features (mountains, valleys, etc.)

🔥 2. Mantle (Beneath the crust)

The mantle is the layer beneath the Earth's crust and is the thickest layer, making up about 84% of Earth's volume.

• State: Solid but behaves plastically in the upper mantle (like hot putty)

• Thickness: ~2,900 km

• Divided into:

  • Upper Mantle (includes asthenosphere)

• Lower Mantle

• Composition: Silicate rocks rich in magnesium and iron (e.g., peridotite)

• Convection Currents: Drive plate tectonics by moving heat and material.

• Beneath the crust

• Semi-solid rock that flows slowly

• Divided into upper and lower mantle

• About 2,900 km thick

The mantle plays a major role in Earth's geology, including volcanic activity and plate movement.

🧲 3. Outer Core

The outer core is the layer beneath the mantle and surrounds the inner core. It is made of liquid metal, mainly iron and nickel.

• State: Liquid

• Thickness: ~2,200 km

• Composition: Mostly iron and nickel

• Function: Movement of the liquid metal generates Earth's magnetic field.

• Made of liquid iron and nickel

• Responsible for Earth’s magnetic field

• Around 2,200 km thick

• Liquid layer (unlike the solid inner core)

• Extremely hot: 4,000°C to 6,000°C

• Movement of liquid metal creates Earth's magnetic field

• High pressure but not enough to make it solid

The outer core is crucial for protecting Earth from harmful solar radiation through the magnetic field it generates.

🔴 4. Inner Core

The inner core is the centermost layer of the Earth. It is made of solid iron and nickel.

• State: Solid (despite extreme heat)

• Radius: ~1,220 km

• Composition: Mostly iron and nickel

• Temperature: Up to 5,700°C (as hot as the Sun’s surface)

• Pressure: So high it keeps the core solid despite the heat.

• Solid iron and nickel

• Hottest layer (up to 5,700°C)

• About 1,220 km thick

• Slowly grows as the outer core cools and solidifies over time

The inner core helps maintain Earth's magnetic field and plays a key role in the planet’s thermal and magnetic dynamics.

Summary Table:

Layer	State	Thickness	Composition
Crust	Solid	5–70 km	Silicates (granite, basalt)
Mantle	Solid (plastic)	~2,900 km	Silicates (peridotite)
Outer Core	Liquid	~2,200 km	Iron, Nickel
Inner Core	Solid	~1,220 km radius	Iron, Nickel

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EARTH ATMOSPHERE//FUNCTION OF EARTHS ATMOSPHERE//LAYERS OF EARTH ATMOSPHERE//KEY CHARACTERISTICS //TROPOSPHERE//STRATOSPHERE//MESOSPHERE//THERMOSPHERE//EXOSPHERE

 ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds a planet, moon, or other celestial body. On Earth, the atmosphere is crucial for supporting life and consists mainly of:

• Nitrogen (78%)

• Oxygen (21%)

• Small amounts of argon, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases

Functions of Earth’s Atmosphere:

• Protects life by blocking harmful solar radiation (like UV rays)

• Regulates temperature through the greenhouse effect

• Enables weather and climate through the movement of air and moisture

• Provides oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis

Layers of Earth’s Atmosphere :

1. Troposphere – where weather occurs

2. Stratosphere – contains the ozone layer

3. Mesosphere – where meteors burn up

4. Thermosphere – contains the ionosphere; auroras occur here

5. Exosphere – outermost layer, gradually fades into space

Troposphere:

The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, where almost all weather phenomena occur—like clouds, rain, snow, and storms.

Key Characteristics of the Troposphere:

• Extends from the Earth's surface up to about 8–15 km (5–9 miles), depending on location:

  • Thicker at the equator (~15 km)

  • Thinner at the poles (~8 km)

• Contains about 75–80% of the atmosphere's total mass

• Made up mostly of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), with traces of other gases

• Temperature decreases with altitude (about 6.5°C per kilometer on average)

• The top boundary is called the tropopause, which separates it from the stratosphere

The troposphere is essential because it’s where we live, breathe, and experience weather. It also plays a critical role in Earth’s climate system and energy balance

Stratosphere :

The stratosphere is the second layer of Earth's atmosphere, located above the troposphere and below the mesosphere.

Key Characteristics of the Stratosphere:

• Altitude: Roughly 10 to 50 km (6 to 31 miles) above Earth's surface

• Temperature: Increases with altitude, unlike the troposphere

  • This is due to the ozone layer absorbing ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun

• Weather: Very stable, with little mixing of air—no clouds or storms like in the troposphere

• Jet aircraft and weather balloons often fly in the lower stratosphere to avoid turbulence

• The top of the stratosphere is called the stratopause, which marks the boundary with the mesosphere

Contains the ozone layer, which absorbs and protects life from the sun's harmful UV rays 

Helps regulate Earth’s temperature by filtering solar radiation

Mesosphere :

The mesosphere is the third layer of Earth’s atmosphere, located above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere.

Key Characteristics of the Mesosphere:

• Altitude: Roughly 50 to 85 km (31 to 53 miles) above Earth’s surface

• Temperature: Decreases with altitude, making it the coldest layer of the atmosphere

  • Temperatures can drop to -90°C (-130°F) or lower near the top

• Top boundary: Called the mesopause, which is the coldest point in Earth's atmosphere

• Air pressure: Extremely low; only a tiny fraction of what it is at sea level

• Composition: Mostly oxygen and nitrogen, but very thin

Burns up meteors: Most meteors entering Earth’s atmosphere burn up in the mesosphere due to friction with air particles

Difficult to study: Too high for weather balloons and too low for satellites, so it's one of the least understood layers

Thermosphere:

Key Characteristics of the Thermosphere:

• Altitude: Roughly 85 to 600 km (53 to 373 miles) above Earth’s surface

• Temperature: Increases sharply with altitude

  • Can reach up to 2,500°C (4,500°F) or more

  • Despite high temperatures, it wouldn’t feel hot to us—because the air is so thin (few molecules to transfer heat)

• Top boundary: The thermopause, which leads into the exosphere

Auroras (Northern and Southern Lights): Occur in the lower thermosphere, caused by interactions between solar radiation and Earth’s magnetic field

Contains the ionosphere (overlaps the thermosphere), a region filled with charged particles that reflect radio waves and enable long-distance communication

Space shuttles and the International Space Station (ISS) orbit in this layer (low thermosphere)

Exosphere:

The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere, gradually transitioning into outer space.

Key Characteristics of the Exosphere:

• Altitude: Starts around 600 km (373 miles) and extends up to 10,000 km (6,200 miles) or more

• Air density: Extremely thin—molecules are so sparse they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding

• Composition: Mostly hydrogen and helium atoms, with traces of oxygen and carbon dioxide

• Temperature: Technically very high, but since there are so few particles, it wouldn’t feel hot

No definite upper boundary—it gradually fades into the vacuum of space

Satellites orbit within the lower exosphere

Molecules can escape into space, especially lighter gases like hydrogen

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TYPES OF ANIMALS//VERTEBRATES-MAMMALS,BIRDS,REPTILES,AMPHIBIANS,FISH//INVERTEBRATES-INSETS,ARACHNIDS,MOLLUSKS,CRUSTACEANS,WORMS,ECHINODERMS

 TYPES OF ANIMALS

Animals can be grouped into different types based on characteristics like body structure, reproduction, and habitat.

1. Vertebrates (Animals with a backbone)

2. Invertebrates (Animals without a backbone)

Main groups of vertebrates:

Five types of animals commonly referred to in biological classification are mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish.  

Type	Description	Examples
Mammals	Have hair or fur, give birth to live young, feed babies with milk	Humans, lions, whales
Birds	Have feathers, lay eggs, most can fly	Eagles, parrots, penguins
Reptiles	Have scales, lay eggs, cold-blooded	Snakes, lizards, turtles
Amphibians	Live in water and on land, have moist skin, lay eggs	Frogs, salamanders
Fish	Live in water, have gills and fins, lay eggs	Sharks, salmon, goldfish

1. Mammals

• Warm-blooded

• Have hair or fur

• Give birth to live young (mostly)

• Feed babies with milk from the mother

• Have lungs and breathe air

Examples: Humans, dogs, elephants, whales

2. Birds

• Warm-blooded

• Covered with feathers

• Lay hard-shelled eggs

• Have beaks and two legs

• Most can fly, but not all (e.g., penguins, ostriches)

Examples: Eagles, pigeons, penguins, owls

3. Reptiles

• Cold-blooded

• Covered with scales

• Lay leathery eggs (on land)

• Breathe with lungs

Examples: Snakes, lizards, turtles, crocodiles

4. Amphibians

• Cold-blooded

• Begin life in water (as larvae with gills)

• Later live on land (with lungs and legs)

• Have moist skin, no scales

Examples: Frogs, toads, salamanders, newts

5. Fish

• Cold-blooded

• Live in water

• Have scales, fins, and gills to breathe

• Lay eggs (mostly soft-shelled)

Examples: Goldfish, sharks, salmon, tuna

Summary:

Type	Warm/Cold Blooded	Body Covering	Where They Live	How They Reproduce
Mammals	Warm-blooded	Hair or fur	Land or water	Live birth (mostly)
Birds	Warm-blooded	Feathers	Air, land, trees	Lay eggs
Reptiles	Cold-blooded	Scales	Mostly land	Lay eggs
Amphibians	Cold-blooded	Moist skin	Water & land	Lay eggs in water
Fish	Cold-blooded	Scales	Water	Lay eggs

Main groups of Invertebrates:

Main types of invertebrates  animals without a backbone are Insects, Arachnids, Mollusks, Crustaceans, Worms, Echinoderms

Type	Description	Examples
Insects	6 legs, most have wings	Ants, butterflies, bees
Arachnids	8 legs, no wings or antennae	Spiders, scorpions
Mollusks	Soft bodies, often with shells	Snails, octopuses, clams
Crustaceans	Hard shells, live mostly in water	Crabs, lobsters, shrimp
Worms	Long, soft bodies, no limbs	Earthworms, leeches
Echinoderms	Spiny skin, live in the ocean	Starfish, sea urchins

1. Insects

• Three body parts: head, thorax, abdomen

• Six legs

• Most have wings

• Antennae for sensing

Examples: Ants, bees, butterflies, beetles

2. Arachnids

• Eight legs

• Two body parts: cephalothorax and abdomen

• No wings or antennae

Examples: Spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites

3. Mollusks

• Soft bodies, often with a shell

• Some have tentacles

• Most live in water, some on land

Examples: Snails, slugs, octopuses, clams

4. Crustaceans

• Hard exoskeleton

• Jointed legs (usually 10 or more)

• Live mostly in water

Examples: Crabs, lobsters, shrimp, barnacles

5. Worms

• Long, soft bodies

• No legs or arms

• Live in soil, water, or inside other animals

Examples: Earthworms, flatworms, roundworms, leeches

6. Echinoderms

• Spiny skin

• Live only in the ocean

• Radial symmetry (body parts arranged in a circle)

Examples: Starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers

7. Cnidarians

• Soft-bodied, mostly jelly-like

• Have stinging cells for catching food

• Live in water

Examples: Jellyfish, sea anemones, corals

Summary:

Type	Key Features	Examples
Insects	6 legs, 3 body parts, often wings	Ants, bees, butterflies
Arachnids	8 legs, 2 body parts	Spiders, scorpions
Mollusks	Soft body, often with shell	Snails, octopuses, clams
Crustaceans	Hard shell, many legs	Crabs, shrimp, lobsters
Worms	Soft, long body, no legs	Earthworms, tapeworms
Echinoderms	Spiny skin, live in ocean	Starfish, sea urchins
Cnidarians	Soft body, stinging cells	Jellyfish, corals

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